Report Writing

APA Format Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you will be able to:

Ò Identify the different parts of an essay

Ò Define APA format

Ò Identify the general guidelines for an APA paper

Ò Use citations and list references in accordance to APA format

REPORT WRITING

Different Parts of Essay

An essay is made up of 3 parts:

Ò Introduction Ò Body Ò Conclusion

Writing an Introduction

Ò Introductions need to provide general information about the topic

Ò Typically introductions include:

qBackground to the topic

qAn outline of issues that will and will not be discussed in the essay

Example of Introduction

What is Cyber-Bullying

Ò Cyber-bullying has more than one definition, cyber-bullying can be defined as "when the Internet, cell phones or other devices are used to send or post text or images intended to hurt or embarrass another person" [1] or as "a situation when a child or teen is repeatedly 'tormented, threatened, harassed, humiliated, embarrassed or otherwise targeted' by another child or teenager using text messaging, e-mail, instant messaging or any other type of digital technology." [2] The last definition I gave refers only to teens or children because bullying through the internet or cellphones from adults to adults can be referred to as cyberstalking which due to word limitation I will not go into.

Writing the Body

Ò Each paragraph should make a point which should be linked to your outline

Ò The most important consideration in the body paragraphs is the argument that you want to develop in response to the topic. This argument is developed by making and linking points in and between paragraphs.

Writing the Body (cont.)

Try structuring paragraphs like this:

Ò Topic sentence: open the paragraph by making a point Ò Supporting sentences: support the point with references and research

Ò Conclusive sentence: close the paragraph by linking back to the point you made to open the paragraph

Example of Body

Ò A cyber-bullying situation can be as simple as sending emails to someone that wants no further contact with you but it can also be very serious when it includes threats or sexual bullying or when a forum is created and that person is ridiculed. Cyber-bullies may post personal data of their victims at websites or forums or even pretend to be someone else in order to publish different material to the victim's name that diminishes or humiliates him. The biggest percentage of the bullies use pretty much the same tactic as they send threatening messages to their victim or call them mean names.

Example of Body (cont.)

Effects of Cyber-Bullying

Ò Cyber-bullying has several negative effects on individuals or groups of people. Usually, it starts with a confused feeling on the part of the victim, feeling hurt because a person or a group of people has targeted them and insulted them for no other reason than simply to be mean. Most would ask why they are the target but perhaps even cyber-bullies do not know why. They gradually get feelings of fear or of loneliness, fear of leaving their home or fear of going to school. If the victim is being bullied continuously, his grades may drop or even show symptoms of paranoia that would make it difficult for him to communicate with people of his age or make new friends. Depression can be one of the symptoms of cyber-bullying, and I am calling them symptoms because it seems that cyberbullying is now a "disease" for our society. A feeling of helplessness occurs as the victim does not know where to turn to for help. It is of course true that in serious cases of constant bullying, suicide may be part of the story. Cyberbullying should be stopped but the question still exists, can it be stopped?

Writing the Conclusion

This is usually structured as follows:

Ò Describe in general terms the most important points made or the most important linkage of ideas Ò Do not include new information, therefore it does not usually contain references

Ò End with a comment, a resolution, or a suggestion for issues that may be addressed in future research on the topic.

Example of Conclusion

Conclusion to Cyber-Bullying

In conclusion although the internet and mobile phones communication systems make our lives easier and play a very important role in our activities, it is unfortunate that they are being used to abuse others. The positive aspects of the internet and mobile phones cannot be questioned or enumerated however what I am mostly certain of is that the negative aspects are just as great in number and in seriousness.

What will always be needed to overcome such a situation is the support of adults towards children and young people that have fallen victims to the dark pits of the internet. Since bullying through internet and mobile phones cannot really be stopped then the next best way to deal with it, is to make children immune to it. Children should be taught to avoid it and go on with their lives. They should be taught how to prevent bullies from using them as victims. Parents should help them build a strong personality.

THE BASICS OF APA FORMAT

APA FORMAT

• American Psychological Association

• In 1929, published instructions for authors on how to prepare document for APA journals

•

The rules of APA format are outlined in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6^th

Edition).

• adopted as the writing style of choice by many disciplines, including fields of health sciences and medicine.

• used in academic writing for theses, term papers, etc. ¹⁴

FORMATTING

o Paper

o Standard size is 8 ½ x 11 inches o Font

o Times Roman, Courier o 12 point font

o Margins

o Uniform margins of 1” at the top, bottom and sides

o Page numbers

o Number consecutively beginning with the title page o Do not use sub-page numbers like 3a

o Spacing

o double-spacing between every line of the title, text in the abstract and body of the paper, headings, quotations, references, and tables

ABBREVIATIONS

Ò Abbreviated word or phrase that is written completely in the first time it is used, followed by its abbreviation in parentheses.

Ò Subsequent mentions can then just use the abbreviation.

So, the first time you would write “In the

United States

(U.S.), the registered nurse (RN) typically cares for two patients in the intensive care unit (ICU).” Throughout the rest of the paper, U.S., RN, and ICU may be utilized without further explanation.

CAPITALIZATION

Ò Used to designate proper nouns or trade name.

Ò For example:

National League for Nursing (NLN), University of Sharjah (UOS).

NUMBERS

Ò Spell numbers one through nine in the body of the text.

Ò Use Arabic numerals to express numbers 10 and above.

TITLE

The title should be concise and briefly summarize the main idea of the paper.

Elements of a Title Page:

ÉArticle title

ÉName of the author

ÉAuthor’s school affiliation

ÉRunning head

ÉPage number

RUNNING HEAD

The running head is an abbreviated title

Ò It is placed flush left in the header on every page of the paper.

Ò It is positioned ½” from the top edge and within the 1” top margin.

Ò It contains the words “Running head: ” followed by the first 50 characters of the title of the paper (counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words) in ALL

UPPERCASE LETTERS.

RUNNING HEAD (CONT.)

The running head should be:

Ò in the same font as the text of the paper

Ò should not be underlined, italicized, or bolded.

Ò On all subsequent pages, the running head contains just the first 50 characters of the title of the paper in ALL

UPPERCASE LETTERS.

Ò Note that the words “Running head: ” only appear on the first page of the paper.

CITING YOUR SOURCES

As a general rule, you should cite:

É Any ideas, theories, or research that influenced your paper and were not your own original thoughts.

É All facts and figures that are not common knowledge to the general population.

Ò Two types are included :

I. Direct quotation

II. Paraphrasing

DIRECT QUOTATIONS

Ò Mirror exactly the original source

É Quotations of less than 40 words are enclosed in double quotation marks “_______”

É 40 or more words, it should be presented as a block quotation

DIRECT QUOTATIONS

Quotations of less than 40 words are enclosed in double quotation marks

“_______”

Ò Provide the author, year, and specific page citation in the text

Ò Format of direct quotations vary with placement of quoted material in sentence

FORM 1: DIRECT QUOTATION

Construction of knowledge makes learners think “without being limited by the bounds of human memory“ (Gruender, 1996, p. 26).

FORM 2: DIRECT QUOTATION

Gruender (1996) believed that construction of knowledge makes learners think "without being limited by the bounds of human memory” (p. 26).

DIRECT QUOTATIONS (CONT.)

If a direct quote contains 40 or more words, it should be presented as a block quotation:

É Starting on a new line of text

É The entire quote indented five to seven spaces, or ½ inch, from the left margin

É Without quotation marks

É The citation would then be placed at the end of the block quotation, in parentheses following the final punctuation mark.

DIRECT QUOTATIONS (CONT.)

EXAMPLE

5 DON’TS FOR USING DIRECT QUOTATIONS

1. DO NOT change anything in the statement

2. DO NOT forget to use quotation marks (for a quotation less than

40 words)

3. DO NOT forget to include a citation right after a direct quotation

4. DO NOT forget to include a page or paragraph number in the

citation

5. DO NOT use too many direct quotations

PARAPHRASING

Ò Allows the writer to use ideas and opinions of others.

Ò Each time an author is paraphrased, the source must be cited in the text.

Ò Page or paragraph numbers are not required.

Such as:

The 21^stcentury nurses must be prepared to construct new knowledge and care for clients using thinking skills rather than rote memorization (Gruender, 1996).

WRITING A PARAPHRASE

Ò Choose the source as you write

Ò Write using your own words but do not include any of your own ideas

Ò Use a correct citation immediately after the paraphrase or summary

Ò Use a correct reference at the end of the paper

PARAPHRASING : IN-CLASS PRACTICE

Environmental pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that damage the environment” which can come “in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light”. “Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels.”

CAN YOU PARAPHRASE THIS PARAGRAPH?

PLAGIARISM

Presenting someone else’s ideas as your own.

Ò Whether accidental or intentional, plagiarism is a serious violation of the university’s Student Code of conduct and carries significant consequences.

Ò PLAGIARISM INDICATORS